Kia’i of Hawai’i : How Our Nation Has and Continues to Overcome Global Crises by Ian Martins, Maui, Hawai'i

Ian Martins 

2020

Kia’i of Hawai’i : How Our Nation Has and Continues to Overcome Global Crises

Abstract : 

This research project aims to introduce themes about Hawaiian cultural history, highlight important figures told through qualitative storytelling and interviews, in addition to quantitative data about disease associated between the introduction of leprosy disease (1865) and modern day Hawai’i (2020). Additionally, it aims to represent close relationships that modern education shares with global crises between era’s, and offer insight to personal connection in hopes of where space between elements such as time, history, people, memory, landmarks, and tradition, can invoke thoughtful and meaningful conversation about preservation of one’s homeland, historical culture, and responsibility (kuleana) to educate others. 

I will delve into two historical education landmarks located on Maui, Hawai’i: Old Maui High School and Pu’unene School. Though the two historical education landmarks deem unfamiliar to non-Maui natives, each represents a great deal of where Hawai’i education was born. Established in 1913, Old Maui High School served as “the main education campus for a resident population of nearly 32,000 local residents'' (Engledow). In addition, the institution served as the first coeducational public high school on the northeasterly shores on the island of Maui. Likewise to Old Maui High School, Pu’unene School, served a large population of community residents, but in downtown Kahului (an approximate 20 minute car ride from Old Maui High School). Pu’unene School offered classes to students ranging from kindergarten up to eighth grade, while both schools nearly provided education to 1,000 students in a given academic year. The structures of both schools reflect uncommon architectural (archetypal) elements as modern society would probably recognize today. Some of those archetypal elements include: classical revival concrete structures, neighboring sugar cane fields, and prolonged roads.

Meanwhile, the vast majority of Maui residents worked on nearby plantation fields or sugar cane mills. Meaning, students typically came from extremely poor backgrounds. The modern technology-information based education we know today, was not nearly what students of the time period engaged in. Formal education consisted of grammar fundamentals or vocational trade skills that students could use after post-secondary education. However, with the rise of schools, came an unprecedented global pandemic (the Spanish flu) that lasted throughout 1918 through the mid 1920’s. Hawai’i also experienced a similar epidemic lasting from 1865 through 1969 known as Hansen’s Disease (Leprosy), that greatly influenced Americanized education and the colonization of Hawai’i. Similar to today, a worldwide spread of disease (COVID-19) has halted the way society conducts operations from education, business, among other fields. As we navigate the new normal, one way to assess progress is through in-depth analysis of historical qualitative and quantitative data — where our societies once stood, how disease changes history, and why reverting to our past serves as a method looking toward the future.     

Tags :

Hawai’i, education, rise and reform, cultural history, disease, global pandemic, crises, technology-information era, quantitative and qualitative data, new normal, futuristic, memory and spaces, ruins, and history of education. 

The Beginning : 

The life of the land and cultural practices are two significant attributes that identify Native Hawaiians. Dating back to as far as history and memory recalls, the Native Hawaiian people settled by canoe through Trans-Pacific voyage in hopes to make a living and find a safe place to call home. Around 400 C.E., the voyagers of Polysian descent landed upon the Hawaiian islands, which in turn became their newly adopted haven. Traditional Polynesians were equipped with labor intensive skills such as farming, fishing, and plantation. These skills would prevail the native people of the Hawaiian islands for years to come. It wasn’t until 1810, that the unification of the Hawaiian islands were formed by King Kamehameha the Great. Succeeding the unification, the Hawaiian islands were ruled by a royal monarchy up until the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom in January of 1893. The last reigning monarch, Queen Lili'uokalani peacefully surrendered the Hawaiian nation to colonizers who identified monetary benefits could be sought with the rise of disease (leprosy) in 1865, greatly afflicting the island peoples, knowing that through force they could make changes to education and land development, and hence took - illegally annexing the native land, the Kingdom of Hawai'i.     

Disease I (Leprosy) : 1865 

In James Flexner’s, “An Institution That Was a Village: Archaeology and Social Life in the Hansen’s Disease Settlement at Kalawao, Moloka’i, Hawaii,” this article pinpoints the rise of Hansen’s disease (Leprosy) and its toll it took on the island people across the state of Hawai’i, and especially on the island of Moloka’i. Though our society continues to experience the spread of disease (COVID-19), Hawai’i is no new stranger to disease outbreaks. The outbreak of Hansen’s disease dates back to 1865, where the state of Hawai’i first experienced its lethal effects. At the time, Hawai’i was not a state, but rather under control of an indigenous monarchy. Over the course of the next one hundred years, the rise of Hansen’s disease sweeping through Hawai’i, came with the displacement of many Native Hawaiians - from their homes, their families, and altering social life. In addition to the negative impacts from Hansen’s disease, this also led to the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom just less than thirty years later in 1893. Native Hawaiians (those affected by Hansen’s disease), would soon become exiles in Kalawao, just off the northeasterly shores on the island of Moloka’i. Treated in authoritative ways, the island people who had Hansen’s disease were socially isolated from their island people, their world. Unfortunately, this is not the end of the suffrage Native Hawaiians and other Pacific Islanders experienced. Provided the amount of limited resources and inability to afford inelastic goods such as medicine, many Pacific Islander and Native Hawaiian people either died within several weeks or months of catching Hansen’s disease. If they were fortunate enough to survive, they lived the remainder of their lives into a newly established capitalistic society.   

In addition to the rise of capitalism in Hawai’i, the nation experienced Catholic missionaries coming through to introduce the religion and help Native Hawaiian people battle Hansen’s disease. Father Damien served as the sole resident priest in Kalawao, which soon earned highest respects paid through appreciation and fellowship by Native Hawaiians and Pacific Islanders. Ecological imperialism as a result of leprosy, led the native people to explore different means of shifting their economy. Some of those greatly impacted were: structural elements of Hawaiian homes and commodities such as alcohol, opiates, metal, and stone. Specifically looking at the structures of Hawaiian homes, the traditional home (hale) mainly consisted of materials that Native Hawaiians and Pacific Islanders could use directly from the land. Meanwhile, the newly established structures took the form of a semi-Western style with doors and windows. Additionally, for commodity development, Native Hawaiians and Pacific Islanders recognized that the production of goods would help them earn economic benefits and strengthen their community. “In general, these tools challenge the idea that the Hawaiian leprosarium was a ‘model of unproductive isolation’” (Flexner 24). This idea pushes that Native Hawaiians and Pacific Islanders were not engaging in rumors that express non-laborious means, but rather actively pursuing ways like home and commodity development to recover from the negative effects caused by the outbreak of disease. In fact, Flexner describes this time period as: “Consumption within the leprosarium played a crucial social role, especially given the absence of the usual network of familial relations and pre-existing power dynamics that structured life in traditional Hawaiian communities [...] While the state had the power to exile and quarantine, the inmates of this institution had the power to create the community” (pages 24/25). Meaning, despite the downplay on social distancing and quarantine lifestyles, these are the very times that people seek entrepreneurship opportunities. Similarly to Native Hawaiians and Pacific Islanders, the kia’i (guardians of the land) found a way to reconstruct financial stability and reconnect their communities through social engagement. 

Google Ngram Viewer - leprosy, Leprosy, LEPROSY 

This graph generated by Google NGram, looks at keyword frequencies specifically looking at the word: “leprosy.” The specific tags that contribute to the quantitative data includes: dates ranging for over 200 years (dating back to 1800), an English (2019) language corpus, and a case sensitivity analysis that allows for a more sufficient report. Drawing attention to the top and middle lines, labeled: “leprosy” (top) and “Leprosy” (middle). Meanwhile, the bottom line “LEPROSY” is provided, the main subset of information will relate to the previous two lines. As the top line (leprosy) depicts, we recognize the peak of the keyword frequency around the year 1893 - the same year as the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom. Additionally, the middle line (Leprosy) outlines its peak around the late 1950’s (1959-1960), the very year Hawai’i became a state. Although these quantitative data points do not specifically attribute to the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom and the statehood of Hawai’i, these pieces of information offer us insight about the impact the rise of disease (leprosy) played among the peoples of the Hawaiian islands and moreover on a global scale throughout the time periods. 

Rise and Reform : 

As a means to progress a newly established economy also came with the rise of Americanized education in Hawai’i. In Derek Taira’s, “Embracing Education and Contesting Americanization: A Reexamination of Native Hawaiian Student Engagement in Territorial Hawai’i’s Public Schools, 1920-1940,” the scholarship highlights that Hawai’i encountered a major shift in the way education was conducted. The traditional education practices of Native Hawaiians includes: mele (songs/chants) and mo’olelo (language/storytelling), which were the main focus areas of Hawaiian education prior to Americanized education. Given the push from colonization, Native Hawaiians recognized the importance for youth to pursue formal education. However, these enthusiastic views on formal education were and in some ways continue to be rejected by Native Hawaiians. At the time, students of Native Hawaiian descent “were constantly forced to negotiate their adherence to Native practices, language, and cultural beliefs in a settler-colonial society that devalued such allegiances” (Taira). Going against cultural identity, Native Hawaiian students were forced to practice Americanized education, the means of learning established by their colonizers. Meaning, students also suffered not only from losing part of their cultural identity but also contributed to personal dualism where students needed to make a decision whether to reject or accept the need to complete Americanized education. 

We recognize the rise of disease came with the progression of Americanized education in Hawai’i. Looking both at Old Maui High School (1913) and Pu’unene School (1922) in times of global crises, many Native Hawaiian students were required to adapt into a newly formed education system. Although this allowed for formal education, these very pressures negatively affected Native Hawaiian families and students as they engaged in “actualizing the Americanized vision for the native youth, came at a great cost: Jeopardizing the native Hawaiian language, many families no longer continued to speak it and instead spoke English so their children would become used to the new language and soon begin to sweep the native Hawaiian language into endangerment” (Taira). This language shift from Hawaiian to English created strains on family relationships as the older generations struggled to communicate with those of the younger generation. Additionally, kupuna (elders) considered the younger generation as “a lost generation” of Native Hawaiians. Another concept that is key to understanding the rise and reform of education in Hawai’i is the fact that Native Hawaiians never passively accepted Americanization in education. In effect, we recognize this problem of rise and reform of education as a body of power, where Native Hawaiian students were “no longer allowed to think freely and innovatively (to that of cultural education practices), meaning native students could not hold a sense of belonging or themselves” (Taira), to be one that reflects the personal dualism experienced by many other students. Despite society’s continuous systematic progression of Americanized education, this research platform dedicates this section to youth as a means to communicate the validity of being proud of one’s native culture and educational practices. Specifically looking at the experiences of Native Hawaiian students who actively battled the reform of their culture and educational practices, these very students proudly represent their cultural identity as “Still a Hawaiian - Proud of it.” 

Development : 

We turn our attention to development that segways into local business development told through the lens of a resilient Maui-native resident, Alice Saito Geoveia. According to Michi Kodama-Nishimoto et al., this qualitative interview completed by Alice Saito Geoviea provides insights to oral histories of native-born Hawai’i residents who were born between the first three decades of the twentieth century. The scope of the oral histories project conducted by Kodama-Nishimoto et al., aims to highlight: “The men and women who share their lives in this book lived through many key events and transformational periods of modern Hawai’i: the immigration of agricultural laborers to the islands, labor strikes, the Great Depression, two World Wars, statehood, the expansion of an American military presence in the Pacific, the growth of tourism, the demise of the sugar and pineapple industries, and the development of a multiethnic, culturally diverse island society.” Specifically, the chapter I’ve selected for further research reflects an interview by Alice Saito Geoveia known as ‘A brave One’ for her resiliency to serve the Maui community and become a business owner at a time period where women were not considered as members of society who deemed ability to attain success, going against the societal gender norm. Growing up in rural Kaupakalua, Maui, Alice came from a plantation family of five siblings - a big ohana to say the least. Plantation or farming were two main jobs Maui-natives held in the early twentieth century. Meaning, Alice Saito Geoveia came from an extremely poor background with her parents making $1.25 per day combined. In her early life, Alice worked on her family’s pineapple crop, which is very tedious labor because of the constant thornes and bruises she would inflict after a good day’s work. Unfortunately, her father died when she was just seven years old, leaving her single mother and uncle to provide the main source of income. This tragic event led Alice to step up as her family's caretaker by supervising her siblings in addition to going to school. 

After reorganizing her priorities and goals, Alice set out to open her own business called Economy Store located in Paia, Hawai’i. She always had good intentions in mind, even up to naming her store: “Economy Store—I think it’s a good name with a lot of meaning. The word “economy” means to save. Through my hardship, it meant so much to me—to economize on your food, on your clothing, or whatever” (Kodoma-Nishimoto et. al). Many of the local residents in Paia likewise to Alice, typically come from working-class families, where food scarcity and inaccessibility to essential goods were common. To ensure her store would serve as an outlet for local residents, Alice kept in alignment with her values to treat all customers equally with kindness and aloha. However, in spite of Alice’s desires, there were members who felt that she would fail simply because Alice is a woman. “I was told when I opened the store that, ‘Oh, this woman, poor thing. In three months, she’ll get out of business or go bankrupt.’ So I said, ‘It better not be that way. I just have to work harder and keep it up…’ As I think back [on] all the things we did to survive, I’m not bitter at all. Maybe it’s through struggling, I do think you get to a point where [you] have to make the best of things, whichever way it is. I’m glad that I did. But I was a brave one, I think. (Chuckles). That’s what people keep telling me” (Kodoma-Nishimoto et. al). Alice Saito Geoveia’s legacy could serve as one that reflects a difficult socioeconomic upbringing, intent to complete the highest level of education in spite of family responsibilities, will through her hard work ethic, and an inspiration who paved the way for women in business and Maui-native residents to pursue their dreams.

Storytelling : Personal Interview with Josephine Fernandez (Grandma) b. 1944

To contribute toward the research project, qualitative data through storytelling is an effective tool that offers a personal perspective by someone who lived throughout the Spanish flu, rise and reform of education in Hawai’i, in addition to growing up in Paia, Maui - a plantation homeland. The interview lasted 17-minutes discussing: background life growing up in plantation housing, changes in education from mechanistic to information-based, rise of Hawai’i education simultaneous to rise of global disease, ecological impacts of buildings/structures, preservation of one’s cultural history in light of specific attributes to Hawai’i focusing on elements such as time and space to highlight disconnection and connection between the past and present. 

Background Life : 0:22-5:09 (time log) 

Question: Grandma - what your homelife looked like when you were growing up, where did you grow up, and also how has that town changed since you grew up there? 

Response: I grew up in Paia, Maui which was known for sugar plantation housing. My dad (my great grandfather) worked for Hawai’i Cane and Sugar (HC&S) plantation. I lived in housing known as camps. We used to walk to school and walk to church because we had no vehicle back then. I attended Holy Rosary School and Church, a Catholic school and place of worship. Then, for high school I attended Saint Anthony School in Wailuku and caught a bus to and from school. There were many little stores in Paia and back then people were so poor, my dad made just 50 cents a day working for the plantation. My parents used to go to the stores in Paia to purchase groceries, we were only able to afford a can of SPAM or corned beef for meals. Additionally, our family needed to sign off a bill as a tracking method where the plantation workforce would deduct the amount spent at the grocery store off my father’s earning wages. Rent back in those days was $14 a month and water was free! Today, wages are much higher but so is the cost of living. Looking at the years of service my dad contributed to HC&S, he worked there for 51 years starting at 14 years old, who never attended high school. He began his career at HC&S as a water boy who would take water to mules that transported the harvested cane to the sugar mill. He retired as a tractor bulldozer operator. We moved from Paia to Kahului in 1967, the plantation phased out camp housing and required my family to purchase our own home. Additionally, with the new house came an in-house bathroom which was a significant upgrade from our previous out-house bathroom. Paia town has turned into a surfing community, where a lot of mainland people come. Few local residents (and resident families) remain who were there in my time. So most of the stores that I knew of as a little girl, are no longer there. They have either turned into a restaurant or surfing store. These are some of the highlights of growing up in Paia and the main differences since my time and today. 

Changes in Education : 6:22-7:45 (time log) 

Question: Could you talk a little bit about what education looked like back then? Were there any primary differences between grammar, mathematics, religion, combination of the three, or anything as you’d consider a big difference in what education looks like today? 

Response: Well back in the day, there was just Paia School, Holy Rosary School, or Pu’unene School. After you graduated from either of the primary schools, students attended high school at Old Maui High School. Otherwise, families decided to send their children to other high schools, Baldwin High School (Central Maui) or Lahainaluna High School (West Maui) were the other two high schools on the island. Baldwin High School was close enough for students to take the bus downtown, meanwhile if students chose to attend Lahainaluna High School, they would board there and work as on-campus laborers afterschool in exchange for housing. Then, the Old Maui High School situated near Paia and Holy Rosary Schools, moved to central Kahului, Maui. Classes back then were called arithmetic: English, history, geography, and spelling, among other basic subjects. The technology today that the students learn in high school or grade school is totally different from the education I received growing up. 

Rise of Hawaii Education / Rise of Global Disease : 9:12-10:08 (time log)

Question: What would be your message to the people at the local, state, and for those who are looking for hope and inspiration at this time?

Response: Back in the day there was also tuberculosis and polio, it affected many families who had loved ones sent to Kula Hospital if they contracted either disease. The central hospital in Pu’unene specifically served polio patients and medical advancements were able to find a vaccine for the disease. They also found cures for tuberculosis as well, which helped slow and eventually stopped the viral spread of the diseases. The main message is: Take care of yourself and when you’re told to do something like now in our present day, wear a mask, maintain social distancing, and obey regulations set by health officials. Therefore, you will not be spreading coronavirus and have a lower chance of contracting the airborne disease. 

Ecological Impacts of Buildings / Structures : 11:05-12:44 (time log)

Question: Would you be able to talk about the ecological impacts such as structures or buildings and what they looked like back then? Perhaps, you could share this in relation to your home in Paia or schools specifically looking at concrete or roadways. What impacts did this have? 

Response: There was one main highway after leaving Paia town was Baldwin Avenue, which is the roadway which I lived at the plantation camp housing. The homes were found off a dirt road, nothing that resembles the gravel roadways we see today. Cultural diversity was a main function within these plantation homes where Portuguese, Hawaiian, and other nationalities. When we moved to Kahului, the structures were much better as they were made from concrete and prevented local critters such as termites, roaches, and cane spiders from entering the house. 

Preservation of Cultural History : 14:26-17:16 (time log)

Question: What is your advice to any youth who look to preserve their cultural heritage and take responsibility for their families or homeland? 

Response: Back in my days, respect for one’s parents or grandparents was a principle growing up on Maui. Today, we see the youth or those who have already grown up, move away from the islands without any intent of return. Meaning, more people today do not come home or take responsibility to care for their families who raised them. Financial stability is a determining factor that draws Hawaii-native residents to obtain higher paying careers on the mainland. Personally, I did not have the opportunity to pursue college on the mainland, and instead worked at a local pineapple canary. As we know, pineapple’s are very acidic and set with a full crown of thorns, where I used to get pricked and left with open sores from work. After saving up enough money, she went to pursue business over on Oahu at what was called Oahu Business College at the time. I’ve served over 30 years as an accountant at a local attorney’s office. My message to today’s youth would be: study hard and make something of yourselves. Don’t forget to take kokua (responsibility) to honor your native lands and its people. 

Psychological Impact of Disease: 

According to Moya Sarner’s, “Maintaining Mental Health in the Time of Coronavirus,” looks at mental health as the world continues to navigate the coronavirus pandemic. Within months of the coronavirus outbreak, nearly half of the world's population went into solitary confinement (nearly 4 billion people). These changes to our traditional way of life, continues to impact people especially in regards to mental health. Varying issues of job security, sufficient access to basic needs like food and water, reliable internet connection, loss of income, among others are causing people a great deal of added stress that continues to linger throughout the pandemic. In addition, people find themselves coping with the pandemic differently. Some are allowed to remain at-home for the time being, while others are front line workers who may encounter traumatic experiences at work. These added external pressures from the coronavirus pandemic, play an instrumental role in the way people prepare for long-term impacts. Unfortunately, this stage of recovery implementation is not being discussed on larger scales, leaving people unaware and unknowledgeable about the how-to recover and remain safe throughout and after we gain control of the pandemic. Specifically, the “UK reported increased anxiety, depression and stress, and concerns about social isolation. These were larger worries than the prospect of having covid-19” (Sarner). Meaning, not only does the world continue to face an unprecedented pandemic, but the long-term psychological impacts could be more detrimental than that of actually catching COVID-19. 

Meanwhile, in Parandis Pourdehghan and Seyed-Ali Mostafavifocuses’s article “The Most Psychological Impacts of Coronavirus Epidemics: A Protocol for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis,” focuses on the outbreak of the coronavirus disease that appeared in December 2019 in Wuhan, China. Then in March 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) classified the coronavirus as a pandemic. Since then, people continue to incur mental health effects caused in part to the outbreak of the coronavirus. Dating back to 2002, the SARS virus held much of global attention as it swept through the world. Impacts of this disease led to further psychological disorders like: posttraumatic stress disorder, substance abuse, among other various fear and stress related psychological problems. With the rise of the coronavirus pandemic, people can recognize on a global scale how disease negatively impacts people’s psyche and overall mental health and well-being. Another point of interest pertains not only to the instant, but also the long-run psychological effects generated by COVID-19. Given that the coronavirus is life-threatening, this places additional pressure and stress on those who have family and or friends with underlying health conditions, as these people are more prone to not only catching the disease but also have a higher chance of dying from coronavirus. 

Connecting back to Sarner’s piece, once the UK went into a government ordered shutdown, the country saw an increase in reported depression and anxiety cases. Reverting back to the two modes of coping: staying home or front line, people who continue to serve as necessity workers are dealing with decisions that go against their morals. These implications could potentially contribute to an increase in suicide rates within the UK, where two nurses have already taken their lives because of tough moral decisions (save or not to save certain people). This is why people need to talk, simply because they are not alone. Although we continue to work, pursue education, socialize, all from distant platforms, the personal struggles we face like psychological impacts are not low and in-between, but rather experienced on a larger scale. As a recommendation, people can begin dealing with the personal impacts of the pandemic by “buying in” through social connection - checking in on loved ones, finding ways to encourage others, and challenge one’s self through actionable and attainable goals. 

Ascension : 

As described in Victor Manoel Andrade’s article, “The ‘Uncanny’, the Sacred and the Narcissism of Culture: The Development of the Ego and the Progress of Civilization,” the main research revolves around connecting the uncanny to Freudian study, the article aims to research the similarities between narcissism and two human-embodied attributes: the human shadow and mirrored reflection (the human soul) as uncanny. Additionally, it relates to the idea that the majority of social conflicts are greatly tied to primary narcissism. To that, uncanny elements such as rejection and destructive aggressiveness are created and or can be performed. Therefore, as civilization progresses, people would then need to fulfill their responsibility to contribute toward the lessening of our two uncanny themes: rejection and destructive aggression. Between these means, people battle what is recognized as personal dualism. Personal dualism shares the idea that something or someone shares a state of mind/being in two parts. Meaning, there are two highly viable options to choose between. This creates a sense of personal conflict, where this could also be closely described as an opportunity for one to go against personal identity or one’s ego; however, by not selecting the other viable option, can create negative results on one’s persona.

Particularly looking at the context of Hawai’i as the once monarchy ruled Hawaiian nation, was colonized by Americans and led to the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom in January of 1893. We can closely examine how Native Hawaiians also experienced this sense of personal dualism, while the Hawaiian nation was being colonized by American forces. People could either choose to “reject or perform destructive aggression” toward its intruders or surrender. However, once recognizing the American development through weaponry and preparation of battleships, Native Hawaiians knew that their people both in population and defense, could not withstand their own against the colonization of their land. Without seemingly reasonable choice, Native Hawaiians were forced to give up their land and surrender to Americanized colonization. 

Yet, the soul of the Hawaiian nation was not to be touched. The cultural identity and social practices mattered more to Native Hawaiians, and this is the gift my fellow people have preserved for years since our annexation. Through Hawaii’s strong cultural commitment to serve as protectors (kia’i) of both people and land, we recognize how necessary it is to maintain social responsibility (kuleana) through good hygiene and quarantine practices in times of viral disease. This project is a dedicated resource that describes how Hawai’i serves as a model nation for overcoming the spread of global disease in light of the ongoing coronavirus pandemic. Throughout it all - our history of colonization, tearful cries to preserve our identity, means of survival through labor intensive farming/plantation life, push from Americanized education, consistent battle of personal dualisms, we recognize how strong of a people - of a nation, Hawai’i was and how it remains to be.

 

Works Cited 

Andrade, Victor Manoel. “The ’Uncanny’, the Sacred and the Narcissism of Culture: The Development of the Ego and the Progress of Civilization.” International Journal of Psychoanalysis, vol. 88, no. 4, Aug. 2007, pp. 1019–1037. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1516/XG21-U1V8-7Q66-7097.

Engledow, J. (2016, July 14). Old School Spirit: Old Maui High School: Paia Maui. Retrieved October 11, 2020, from https://www.mauimagazine.net/old-maui-high-school-history/

Flexner, James. “An Institution That Was a Village: Archaeology and Social Life in the Hansen’s Disease Settlement at Kalawao, Moloka’i, Hawaii.” International Journal of Historical Archaeology, vol. 16, no. 1, Mar. 2012, pp. 135–163. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1007/s10761-012-0171-4.

Kodoma-Nishimoto, Michi, et al., editors. Talking Hawai`I's Story: Oral Histories of an Island People. University of Hawai'i Press, 2009. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt6wqqtj. Accessed 6 Nov. 2020.

Pourdehghan, Parandis, and Seyed-Ali Mostafavi. “The Most Psychological Impacts of Coronavirus Epidemics: A Protocol for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” Iranian Journal of Psychiatry, vol. 15, no. 3, July 2020, pp. 248–251. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=144778653&site=ehost-live. 

Sarner, Moya. “Maintaining Mental Health in the Time of Coronavirus.” New Scientist, vol. 246, no. 3279, Apr. 2020, pp. 40–46. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=142853633&site=ehost-live.

Taira, Derek. “Embracing Education and Contesting Americanization: A Reexamination of Native Hawaiian Student Engagement in Territorial Hawai’i’s Public Schools, 1920-1940.” History of Education Quarterly, vol. 58, no. 3, Aug. 2018, pp. 361–391. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1017/heq.2018.15.